Popular culture traditionally considers Marcus Aurelius Antoninus among the most admirable men the Roman empire ever produced. Today, he is remembered primarily for two things. Marcus Aurelius was the last of the five “Good Emperors” — those who maintained a facade of the old republic during the Pax Romana, discharging their imperial duties with restraint and benevolence — and he was a philosopher, dedicated to stoicism for the duration of his life. Marcus’ chief philosophical work, Meditations, remains popular in translated form. Marcus’ application of philosophy in politics, although not unique, makes his reign particularly noteworthy.¹

Born just outside Rome on April 26, 121 C.E. to the upper-class family of prominent praetor Marcus Annius Verus, Marcus was not always destined for such power as he came to wield.² He eventually landed upon the throne at age forty, but the path he took to get there was not a straightforward one.³

As a boy, Marcus practiced stoic philosophy ardently, assuming the traditional dress of the Greek fathers of stoicism, whom he considered to display the pinnacle of philosophical creed, indicating his dedication to stoic ideas as well as to the culture that produced them.⁴ Apollonius of Chalcedon, a prominent stoic, tutored him privately, and the young man made a point of attending the every available philosophical lecture in the city.⁵ It was during this time that the future emperor developed most of the views expressed in Meditations; after his ascension to power, wars plagued the empire continuously, allowing little opportunity to absorb further philosophical teachings.⁶

The details of stoic philosophy are rather complex, but an explication of Marcus Aurelius’ life would be incomplete without an explanation of the philosophy that defined so much of what he did and what he came to stand for. While the following explication is chronologically parenthetical, one must appreciate that basic knowledge of Meditations' basic elements is foundational to an understanding of Marcus Aurelius not just as a philosopher, but as an emperor and as a man.

Unlike the Greeks of some earlier stoic traditions, Marcus meant his philosophy to be generally applicable by the lay person. A focus upon the sort of notions one might find in a modern self-help book, as opposed to the more abstract matter of his predecessors, is evident in the text of Meditations. Three main points of consideration from the writings follow.⁷

Roman stoicism is designed to be a framework for life, providing a clear and simple path for its subscribers to live as ethically and happily as possible. Thus, any innovations in Roman stoic philosophy must be clear, simple, and helpful in this regard. Marcus’ primary claim is that one may live well only by obeying one’s nature and avoiding self-inflicted displeasure.⁸

He explains that this is because man can only fundamentally know himself, and thus must, in the loosest sense, only consider himself. Examined superficially, such a conviction may seem to encourage unethical behavior, but consider that it is a description of fundamental human nature, not a prescription of social norms. Because all people exist within the bounds of their senses, the solution to those problems ostensibly beyond one’s control lies in one’s internal perception. By modifying the degree to which one allows oneself to experience anxiety or anguish at these problems, one modifies the degree of the problem itself. This does not preclude one from external solutions; rather, it demonstrates their subordinate nature.

The reasoning that facilitates application of these tenets is simple. First, a stoic determines whether or not a problem exists. If one does not, there is no need to worry. If there is a problem, they consider possible solutions. If a practical solution exists, they implement it, and all is well. If there is no solution, there is nothing to be done and thus no sense in worrying. The effect of such logic is that it does not matter whether or not a solution to the problem can actually be found, for both imply the same conclusion.

The development of this philosophy represents not only a great intellectual achievement, but an essential social innovation. The average Roman experienced difficulty in finding agency, and thus stoicism provided a much needed mechanism for people to reconcile the lives they lived with the lives they wanted. While the development and propagation of his ideas is undoubtedly impressive, such achievement is only half the reason Marcus Aurelius is remembered today.

Marcus’ journey to power was somewhat serendipitous. His father died when he was young, leaving him to be raised by his mother and grandfather.⁹ Marcus’ family was very close to Emperor Hadrian, who took a special liking to the young man.¹⁰ Upon the death of Lucius Caesar, Hadrian’s only heir, the emperor adopted Marcus’ uncle-in-law, Antoninus Pius, as his new son and successor. As part of this arrangement, Hadrian dictated that Pius, who had no sons of his own, was to adopt Marcus Aurelius and another, Lucius Aurelius Verus, to ensure a line of succession was maintained.¹¹ The two were considered particularly qualified for the position by their records of public service, Marcus serving thrice as consul and Verus twice so.¹² When Antoninus Pius died in 161 after succeeding Hadrian, Marcus and his adoptive brother, Verus — as the other was usually called — ascended as co-emperors.¹³ It was also during this time that Marcus took Pius’ daughter, Annia Faustina, as his wife.

If the first parts of Marcus’ life were characterized by the pursuit of understanding in philosophy, the later parts were characterized by the pursuit of victory in war. Conflict with Parthia commenced almost immediately upon the death of Antoninus Pius and was followed closely by the Marcomannic wars¹⁴ — a series of campaigns against Germanic invaders northeast of the Adriatic Sea.¹⁵ Upon Verus’ ascension, it became apparent that he was more or less uninterested in governing an empire, and Marcus Aurelius quickly became the de facto center of power in Rome.¹⁶ Newly established as the chief political cynosure, and deciding that Verus would better serve imperial interests elsewhere, he dispatched his adoptive brother eastward to head the Parthian campaign.¹⁷ Though this conflict lasted five years, Marcus had little direct involvement, instead placing his faith in the strategic abilities of Verus and the generals already engaged there.

He did, however, personally conduct Roman front-line operations during the Marcomannic wars.¹⁸ In 166, immediately preceding Parthia’s defeat, Germans attacked the empire in the Noric-Pannonian section on both sides of the river Danube, prompting an immediate imperial response.¹⁹ Marcus took up residence in Pannonia, from where he commanded Roman troops in combat against the German tribes, and it was there that he began work on Meditations, completing at least two of the twelve volumes of his philosophy in or around that area.²⁰

The portion of Marcus’ history following his relocation to Pannonia is largely homogeneous, characterized by the same war and the same writing for its duration. Marcus’ co-emperor and adoptive brother, Verus, died of a stroke in 169, formalizing the by then long established status of Marcus Aurelius as the sole empowered emperor.²¹ He moved around within the Danubian region as elements of the war dictated, continuing to write, but ultimately returned to Pannonia where he died, aged fifty-nine, in 180 C.E.²²

Even today, Marcus Aurelius remains one of the most well known and well respected Romans of the Imperial era, not only among philosophers and historians, but among screenwriters and novelists and the countless people upon whom his writings have had a profound impact throughout the centuries. Stoicism and the innovations propounded in Meditations command similar popularity. They are some of the most followed philosophies in the modern Western world, and for good reason — the principles of stoic living offer their adherents the same contentment today that they did nearly two-thousand years before.

Notes

1. Aurelius, Marcus. Meditations: A New Translation. Translated by Gregory Hays. Random House Publishing Group, 2002.

2. Capitolinus, Iulius, and Susan Ballou. “Marcus Aurelius Antoninus.” Story. In Historia Augusta 1, translated by David Magie, Vol. 1. Loeb Classical Library, 1921, 133.

3. Sellars, John. Marcus Aurelius. Philosophy in the Roman World. Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group, 2020, 1.

4. Ibid., 7.

5. Capitolinus., 139.

6. van Ackeren, Marcel, ed. A Companion to Marcus Aurelius. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, 2012. Accessed November 30, 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central., 13.

7. Keep in mind that this explanation is greatly simplified, for the paper you are reading is a biography, not a philosophical treatise or literary examination.

8. Kamtekar, Rachana. “Marcus Aurelius.” Essay. In The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, edited by Edward Zalta, Spring 2018ed. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, 2018., 2.

9. Adams, Geoff W. Marcus Aurelius in the Historia Augusta and beyond. Lanham [Md.]: Lexington Books, 2013., 60.

10. Capitolinus., 139-149.

11. Adams., 172.; Adams., 179.

12. van Ackeren., 97.

13. Adams., 179.; Epiphanius. Epiphanius' Treatise on Weights and Measures. Edited by James Elmer Dean. Chicago, Illinois : Univ. of Chicago Pr., 1935., 7.

14. This term is a misnomer. The so-called Marcomannic wars actually involved many Germanic tribes other than the Marcomanni.

15. Kovács, Péter. Marcus Aurelius' Rain Miracle and the Marcomannic Wars. Brill EBook Titles, 2009., 201.

16. van Ackeren., 217.

17. Ibid., 218.

18. Kovács., xvii.

19. van Ackeren., 29.

20. Kovács., xvii.

21. Capitolinus., 171.

22. Adams., 37.